And with grain make spirits 'gainst the spring
Which to the bushy eyebrows comfort bring--
'Book of Ancient Poetry'
Come hither, O Indra, to our sacrifices! Drink of the soma,
O soma drinker! Thine intoxication is that which gives us
abundance of cows. Come hither, O Indra, and intoxicate
thyself!
Prayer to Indra in the Indian Rig-Veda
Their beverage is a wine prepared by them from barley, there
being no grapes in their country.
Herodotus writing of the Egyptians in 494 B.C.
Our victuals were mostly spent, especially our beer.
The Pilgrims, on landing at Plymouth Rock
The word beer comes from the Saxon word for barley, which was
baere. There is a good reason for this derivation. Whereas wine
is the result of fermentation of a fruit juice, beer results from
fermentations on a wort (pronounced 'wert') derived from grain.
The grain most often used in the production of beers and ales is
barley, and normally only certain types of barley, at that (6 row
barley is the best for malting, with 2 row barley being next -- 4
row barley has a high protein content and is, therefore, less
suitable for the production of beer).59
Rice is used in the production of Sake which is a beer (being
made from a grain) and not a wine. It is often mistakenly called a
wine due to its much higher alcoholic strength than traditional beers
(higher, actually, than most wines) and the fact that it is not carbonated,
as the modern beer drinker expects his drink to be. Also, in the modern
world, at least in the United States, Sake is labeled as a wine
when sold commercially for these very same reasons. It is no small
wonder that the public is confused concerning this drink.
In modern times, other grains, too, are used in the production of
beers, including corn and wheat, but this was not the practice
during the Medieval period in Europe, although the American Indians
were making a beer from corn at the time that Columbus arrived in
the New World.60 For this
writing, beer will refer to the fermented wort of barley, and sake to
that of rice with no other grains present in either of these drinks unless
specifically mentioned.
Beer has been made by virtually all grain producing
countries.61 Hieroglyphics
show that it was considered an ancient beverage even in early Dynastic
Egypt.62 The reason for this is
probably because barley is a less finicky plant than grapes and
will grow faster,63 in a wider
variety of climates and soils. This makes a more reliable crop for conversion
to alcohol than would the grape, especially in more northerly climates
Medieval beer or ale was a cloudy drink, full of proteins and
carbohydrates,64 making it a good source
of nutrition for the medieval peasant and nobleman alike. This was a good thing, as it
often constituted a considerable portion of the medieval diet,
particularly in the lower classes.
Hops, now used universally in beer, were used as a medicinal plant
in Medieval Europe, which, when mixed in beer, made 'medicine that tasted
good.'65 Traditionally, English ales
did not contain hops. It was only after the English soldiers returned from wars on
the mainland during the sixteenth century, where they had sampled
German beer, which did contain hops, that they began to demand hops
be added to their own English drink.66 Some, however, credit the
Dutch with having brought the use of hops to England for use in
beer even earlier, during the fifteenth century.67
The actual origins of the use of hops in brewing are
unknown68
but probably date back to the early years of civilization. It has
been theorized that the ancient Hebrews, during their captivity in
Babylon in the 8th and 9th centuries BC, may have learned to use
hops in beer.69 If this is so,
then the origins stretch even farther back than this, to whenever the
Babylonians learned to use hops themselves. Whereas the origins of its use
in brewing are obscured in the dawn of civilization, its more modern use can be
dated. References to the use of hops in the brewing process can be
found from the eigth century onwards.70
Indeed, for these past 1200 years the plant has been used almost exclusively in the making
of beer.71
Concerning sake, in the thirteenth century Marco Polo wrote,
'It is a liqueur which they brew of rice with a quantity of
excellent spice in such a fashion that it makes a better drink than
any other kind of wine; it is not only good, but clear and pleasing
to the eye. And being very hot stuff, it makes one drunk sooner
than any other wine.'72 Thus,
we have the misconception right from the start of labeling Sake as wine.
From this, however, it should be noted that emphasis is placed on the clarity
of the drink. This was a quality generally lacking in medieval alcoholic beverages,
which tended to be rather cloudy and full of sediment. Also note
that spices were used at that time. Sake need not be a tasteless
drink with little appeal to the average drinker.
Often in beer producing countries, an entire city could derive
much of its livelihood and prosperity from the brewing industry.
Such was the case of Hamburg which, at the height of its beer
producing heyday, boasted over 500 different breweries.73
The basic steps used in making beer are as follows:74
1. Malting - germination of the grain, allowing for
creation of enzymes which will later convert starches
to sugars
2. Mashing - the conversion of starches within the grain
to fermentable sugars
3. Fermentation - conversion of sugar to alcohol
4. Bottling & Priming - the addition of small amounts of
sugar at bottling time to allow for correct carbon-
ation
The explanation of each of these brewing steps will be put
forth in the following paragraphs:
Malting is a very difficult and exacting process and is rarely
carried out by the brewer, but, rather, is done by another
specialist in his field, the maltster. This being the case, I will
not go into extreme details and specifics of the procedure, but
will give a simple overview of what the general process is. The
grains of barley, after being soaked in warm water, are piled up
several inches high in a room where the temperature can be kept
warm and constant. These grains are then kept moist and are
carefully watched to see just when they germinate.75
At just the right time after germination, the maltster will remove the grains
from the malting floor and will heat them in a kiln. The
temperature of the kiln76 will vary,
depending on the type of malt desired. For a pale malt, the grains will be
heated enough to kill them and prevent further enzyme production, but will
not harm the enzyme already produced. Various other malts, such as crystal malt
which has a slight reddish tinge, chocolate malt, which is a dark
brown, and black malt, are heated to higher temperatures, killing
off some, or all of the enzyme present. In so doing, these malts
will add extra flavor and body, but must be used with a lighter
malt which still contains active enzymes.771
Once the malting process is completed, the malt goes to the
brewer and the process of turning it into beer actually begins.
The first of the brewer's steps in this process is mashing. This
is done by mixing the various malts in the correct proportions for
the type of beer, or ale, that is desired. Greater amounts of pale
malts will produce a higher alcoholic content, while increasing the
amount of the darker malts will not much affect the final alcohol,
but will increase the flavor, color and body of the finished
beverage. Crystal malt, being in the middle range, will increase
the alcohol content, as well as adding to the body, color and
flavor of the beer. Once the grains are mixed, they are lightly
crushed to allow the enzymes, starch and water to more freely mix,
and then they are added to hot, though not scalding, water (about
120 F to 130 F) for a period of 30 minutes to an hour.78
This begins to soften the grain and helps proteins, which are undesirable as
they will cause cloudiness, to settle out. Once the grain and
water (refered to as liquor) have been mixed, the solution is then
called the wort. The wort is then heated to a temperature of about
150 F, but not above 157 F79
(sometimes there is an intermediate stage around 140 F, though, if the
temperature is increased gradually, this should normally prove unnecessary).
These temperatures should be maintained for about one hour.80
It is at these higher temperatures that the starch present in the grain is
actually converted to fermentable sugars. Care must be taken at
this time, however, to keep these temperatures correct.81
At a too low temperature the conversion will not take place, or at least
will not be complete. At too high a temperature, on the other
hand, the enzymes will be killed, thus preventing any further
conversion unless more malt is added which contains the enzymes.
In modern times, these enzymes can be purchased separately from the
malt at a beer supply shop. The addition of these enzymes, even to
a malt which contains active enzymes of its own will assure a more
rapid and complete conversion as long as the correct temperatures
are maintained.
Once all of the starch has been converted to sugar, the wort
is drained from the spent grains. This is traditionally done by
transferring the wort to a lauter tub ('lauter' meaning 'clear' in
German) which contains a false bottom. The grains will settle
rapidly to the bottom and form a filter through which the wort will
pass as it drains out through the false bottom. More hot water is
then added to the lauter tub to rinse the last of the sugars off
the grains in a process known as sparging.82 The grains, being
totally spent are now useless to the brewer, but are often used as
livestock feed (nothing being wasted if it can be used for any
other purpose).
The wort is then transferred to a large pot where it will be
boiled83 for up to two hours.
It is at this time that any other additives which might need to be cooked
into the wort, such as hops, are added. Hops serve a dual purpose in beer
making.84 The obvious result
of boiling hops with the wort is the added bitterness which is imparted
to the finished beer. The hops also serve as a preservative, allowing
the beer to be kept for a longer time and to travel better. Toward the
end of the boil, usually during just the last 10 to 15 minutes, more hops
are added, often of a different variety than those used initially. These are
known as finishing hops85 and are added,
not to add bitterness, as they will not be boiled long enough for that, but,
rather, for the aroma which they will add. The hops which have been boiled for
the full time will long since have lost any aromatic properties which they
originally had. The wort is then siphoned clear, leaving the hops
behind.
The wort at this time is nearly ready for fermentation. The
only thing which remains to be done is to add any further water
which is necessary to bring the volume up to that required for the
amount of grain which was used. Fermentation can now commence.
Fermentation varies, depending on the type and character of
the beer desired. In any case, however, it should take place in a
large, non-porous container from which air can be excluded, just as
in the fermentation of wine.
One further difference between British ale and German beer and
the one that still remains today, is the type of yeast used during
fermentation. The yeast used in a German beer was a bottom fermenting
yeast.86 Once the initial tumultuous
fermentation had ended, the yeast would settle to the bottom of the tank.
Fermentation for this yeast takes place at a lower temperature than that of
the ale yeast which forms a frothy layer on the top of the fermenting
liquor.87 The German
beers also were stored for a longer period of time at these lower
temperatures than their English counterparts. It is from this storage
that we get our name for these beers, lager, which is the German word for
storage.88
The final step in the brewing of beer is transferring the beer
to bottles and priming these bottles with the proper amount of
sugar to produce a reasonable head of carbonation without danger of
exploding bottles. The modern home brewer often does this by
adding 3/4 cup of corn sugar to each 5 gallon batch of beer just
prior to siphoning into bottles. This is, perhaps, the easiest
method of priming, but for the purists among us who wish to do
things in the most period way possible, there is another way which
is not, in actuality, all that difficult. This is a process known
as kraeusening, which consist of adding, not sugar, but unfermented
wort, known as gyle. The gyle can be removed from the wort just
prior to pitching (adding) the yeast at the beginning of fermenta-
tion. This gyle should then be stored in a sealed container and
kept refrigerated until bottling time. Permit the gyle to come to
room temperature before being added to the beer about to be
bottled. The obvious question which then arises, is, "How much
gyle should be removed for use in kraeusening?" The answer is a
not too difficult equation based on the specific gravity of the
initial wort prior to fermentation. The equation which follows is
taken from The Complete Joy of Home Brewing:
Quarts of Gyle =
(12 X Gallons of Wort) ------------------------------ (Specific Gravity - 1) X 1000
For example, for 5 gallons of wort with specific gravity of 1.040:
Quarts of Gyle =
12 X 5 ------------------- (1.040 - 1) X 1000
=
60 --- 40
=
1.5
What this means is that for 5 gallons of wort with a specific
gravity of 1.040, 1 1/2 quarts should be removed for use as gyle
during kraeusening at bottling time.
As with any fermentation, sterility of all containers and
utensils is an essential first step to avoiding problems. Beer can
be infected by bacteria just as a wine, or mead, can. If silky
clouds or gelatinous globs form in your beer, see the section on
problems with wine, as the problem is most likely a bacterial
infection and can be dealt with in the same manner as for wine.
Following are some problems which are more specifically related to
beer and are not caused by infections.
Incomplete fermentation and/or hazes can be a problem with the
temperature of mashing, or fermentation itself. Mashing will
proceed at temperatures above 110 F and below 155 F.89
Some authorities place the upper limit at 160 F, or even 170 F, but I would
prefer to err on the low side, as when the temperature gets too
high the enzymes are destroyed and no further conversion takes
place, even when the temperature has been lowered to acceptable
levels. Fermentation will proceed at temperatures between 50 F and
100 F, but it is generally better to keep the temperatures toward the
low end of this range. Higher temperatures will hasten fermenta-
tion, but will often produce beer of lesser quality. Note that too
low a temperature will cause fermentation to stop, but does not
harm the yeast which will almost always start again as soon as the
wort has been warmed up a bit.
A cidery taste is often the result of the addition of cane
sugar to the wort to increase its alcoholic potential. This is not
a period practice for beer and, if avoided, should prevent this
problem. If a higher alcoholic content is wanted without the
addition of extra malt, honey can be added in place of sugar. This
produces a drink which might be called Braggot90
or, simply, Ale with Honey.91
A cloudiness which does not appear until the beer has been
poured into the glass is probably a simple case of unsettling the
yeast which has settled to the bottom of the bottle during
secondary fermentation in the bottle.92
The solution is simple. Take care when pouring the beer from the bottle into the
glass not to stir up any sediment which may be at the bottom. A good beer
yeast will generally pack down on settling and not stir up too
easily, but do not count on this.
If the beer becomes cloudy upon chilling this chill haze is
generally simpler to prevent than to remove. The use of isinglass,
gypsum, or other finings prior to bottling will generally prevent
this problem.93 Another
method of prevention is to allow the beer to sit a little longer in the
secondary fermenter prior to bottling.94
This will allow more natural sedimentation, leaving less particulate matter to
cause a haze later.
Exploding bottles are the fault of either bottling prior to
completion of fermentation, or the addition of too much sugar or
gyle at bottling time.95
There is no solution to this after the fact but to clean up the mess
and avoid making the same mistake again. I strongly recommend not making
the mistake the first time, as an exploding bottle can cause serious harm,
including blinding and death if you happen to be holding the bottle at the
time that it explodes! Do not use greater than normal amounts of sugar or
gyle at bottling time!
Flat beer is generally the opposite problem to exploding
bottles. Not enough sugar or gyle was used at bottling time.96
Another possibility is that faulty caps are allowing the escape of
the CO2 which causes the head.97
A beer which seems to have reasonable carbonation, but does
not form a good head will probably benefit from longer aging and
maturation. Simply allow the remaining bottles to age for an
additional month, or two.98
This will create finer bubbles which will retain a head better. Also,
be sure that the decanter or glass into which the beer is poured is clean,
as dirt and oils will prevent the formation of a full head on your
beer.99
Yeasty flavors are usually the result of using an incorrect
yeast. Use of proper yeast and skimming of any foam and residue
prior to transferring to the secondary fermenter, along with
careful decanting from the bottle, should prevent this
problem.100
Mistress Prisilka claims to have found no use for spent rice,
but I think that I can provide one, at least to those brewers who
also have a vegetable garden. Use the spent rice and raisins as
compost in your garden. I can assure you that, mixed with other
compost, decomposition will take place quite rapidly (though not
without odor).
Shoji yeast contains the required enzymes for converting
starches to sugar prior to fermentation. If shoji yeast can not be
obtained, the starch in the rice will have to be converted to
sugar by means of the enzyme amylase -- which is naturally obtained
from malted grains -- in the manner used for mashing in the making
of a normal beer.
The next two recipes are those mentioned previously for 'Ale
with Honey' and 'Braggot' and are taken from The Closet of Sir
Kenelme Digbie Opened... on pages 104 and 108 respectively.
Sir Thomas Gower makes his pleasant and
wholsom drink of Ale and Honey thus. Take
fourty Gallons of small Ale, and five Gallons
of Honey. When the Ale is ready to Tun, and
is still warm, take out ten Gallons of it;
which, whiles it is hot, mingle with it the
five Gallons of Honey, stirring it exceedingly
well with a clean arm till they be perfectly
incorporated. Then cover it, and let it cool
and stand still. At the same time you begin
to disolve the honey in this parcel, you take
the other of thirty Gallons also warm, and Tun
it up with barm, and put it into a vessel
capable to hold all the whole quantity of Ale
and Honey, and let it work there; and because
the vessel will be so far from being full,
that the gross foulness of the Ale cannot work
over, make holes in the sides of the barrel
even with the superficies of the Liquor in it,
out of which the gross feculence may purge;
and these holes must be fast shut, when you
put in the rest of the Ale with the Honey:
which you must do, when you see that the
strong working of the other is over; and that
it works but gently, which may be after two or
three or four days, according to the warmth of
the season. You must warm your solution of
honey, when you put it in, to be as warm as
Ale, when you Tun it; and then it will set the
whole a working a fresh, and casting out more
foulness; which it would do to violently, if
you put it in at the first of the Tunning it.
It is not amiss that some feculence lie thick
upon the Ale, and work not all out; for that
will keep in the spirits. After you have
dissolved the honey in the Ale, you must boil
it a little to ski, it; but skim it not, til
it have stood a while from the fire to cool;
else you will skim away much of the Honey,
which will still rise as long as it boileth.
If you will not make so great a quantity at a
time, do it in less in the same proportions.
He maketh it about Michaelmas for Lent.
To make Braggot, He (Mr. Webb) takes the
first running of Ale, and boils a less pro-
portion of Honey in it then when He makes His
ordinary Meath; but dubble or triple as much
spice and herbs. As for Example to twenty
Gallons of the Strong-wort, he puts eight or
ten pound, (according as your taste liketh
more or less honey) of honey; But at least
triple as much herbs, and triple as much spice
as would serve a quantity of small Mead as he
made Me (For to a stronger Mead you put a
greater proportion of Herbs and Spice, then to
a small; by reason that you must keep it a
longer time before you drink it; and the
length of time mellows and tames the tast of
the herbs and spice). And when it is tunned
in the vessel (after working with the barm)
you hang in it a bag with bruised spices
(rather more than you boiled in it) which is
to hang in the barrel all the while you draw
it.
